| Number of studiesa | Pooled estimate of prevalence (%, 95% CI) | P |
---|---|---|---|
Income level | 79 |  |  < 0.001* |
High | 33 | 16.4 (12.3–20.5) |  |
Upper-middle | 33 | 29.0 (23.1–35.0) |  |
Lower-middle | 10 | 34.7 (19.0–50.4) |  |
Low | 3 | 10.2 (2.6–17.7) |  |
Decade | 77 | Â | 0.705 |
1991–2000 | 4 | 18.2 (3.4–33.0) |  |
2001–2010 | 12 | 20.5 (9.7–31.4) |  |
2011–2020 | 61 | 23.7 (19.3–28.1) |  |
Parity | 22 | Â | 0.098 |
Nulliparous | 22 | 27.3 (18.6–36.0) |  |
Multiparous | 11 | 15.6 (4.8–26.4) |  |
Method of measuring use of fundal pressure | 72 | Â | 0.001* |
Direct observation | 29 | 28.0 (21.3–34.8) |  |
Medical records | 24 | 14.4 (9.1–19.7) |  |
Women’s self-report | 19 | 29.8 (21.5–38.0) |  |