Table 5 Themes, sub-themes and codes of factors influencing mistreatment during labour and childbirth

Individual-level factors

Perception of healthcare providers about women’s limited knowledge on labour and childbirth process

12

Untrained companions

6

Mismatched expectations of women for care

4

Discrimination based on ethnicity or low socioeconomic status

12

Healthcare provider-level factors

Healthcare provider stress and stressful working conditions

13

Healthcare providers with limited personal experience of pregnancy and childbirth

6

Neglect of midwives’ identities by doctors

9

Poor educational contents and curriculum

6

Low salary and lack of incentive

12

Personal beliefs of the healthcare providers

5

Hospital-level factors

Staff shortages

17

Lack of supervision and control

7

Type of hospital

5

Inadequate physical structures

4

National health system-level factors

Lack of access to pain management during labour and childbirth

6

Perceptions about forced vaginal birth in public hospitals

4